Team:Cornell NY/Proof
Wetlab
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Overview
Bovine mastitis is the most costly agricultural disease, plaguing dairy cattle worldwide. It costs the United States around $2 billion annually, half of which is due to subclinical mastitis [1]. Traditional treatments usually involve the use of antibiotics. However, the use of antibiotics has led to increasing concerns of resistance as well as negative implications on human health. Furthermore, the development and synthesis of new antibiotics is slow and may not necessarily have the desired effects.
Bacteriocins are natural antimicrobial peptides secreted by bacteria to gain competitive advantage in their natural ecosystems. Functionally, bacteriocins kill target cells via different mechanisms, including pore formation, inhibition of translation, inhibition of transcription, and inhibition of cell wall synthesis. The use of bacteriocins as antimicrobial drugs has three significant advantages. First, bacteriocins are known to not be harmful to humans. One such group of bacteriocins, the Nisin family, is approved by the Food and Drug Administration as a food preservative [2]. Second, bacteriocins have a remarkably fast evolution rate [3]. Finally, bacteriocins are known to be very specific to certain species within the same genus, although some are known to have broad spectrum activity as well. This diversity among bacteriocins, along with their safety for human consumption, makes them a promising alternative to traditional antibiotics.
Despite presence of protease cleavage sites, it is resistant to degradation [4].
The pathogens of bovine mastitis can be divided broadly into Gram positive and Gram negative species, as well as contagious or environmental species. Our choice of bacteriocins is such that we can target the pathogens from all categories. Some potent bacteriocins have incredibly complex post-translational modifications, but we have also chosen ones that don’t require any modifications. The genes will be cloned into the standard pSB1C3 vector, and the peptides heterologously expressed by inducing the expression of T7 RNA Polymerase in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The efficacy of these recombinant proteins will be tested via zone of inhibition assays and growth curve assays.
BioBricks
Chassis
BL21(DE3)
BL21(DE3) contains the bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase gene under the lacUV5 promoter and is deficient in common proteases. Therefore, this strain optimizes the expression of proteins placed under a T7 promoter after IPTG induction [5].
XL1B
XL1-Blue supercompetent cells allow for blue-white screening of recombinant plasmids. In addition, XL1B cells are endonuclease and recombination deficient, which greatly improves miniprep DNA quality and yield [6].
Mastitis-Causing Pathogens
Bovine mastitis is caused by a diverse group of pathogens, ranging from bacteria to algae. Here, we list some of the bacteria that are known to be the most historically significant pathogens, the most virulent pathogens, as well as the most common pathogens.
Enterobacter spp.
Enterobacter spp. are mastitis-causing, Gram-negative bacteria. They are found in the environment, specifically areas such as manure, bedding, soil, and muddy lots or corrals. Enterobacter spp. spreads to a cow’s mammary gland through environmental contact, especially when teats come in contact with manure or contaminated bedding. Notably, these bacteria do not respond well to antibiotic therapy. Therefore, it is very important to keep cows clean and dry and employ proper milking procedures to prevent infection from Enterobacter spp [7].
Enterococcus spp.
Enterococci spp. are Gram-positive bacteria and common environmental pathogens of bovine mastitis, contributing to 11% of cases in Central California. It has been shown to be resistant to a wide range of antimicrobial compounds [8].
Escherichia coli
E. coli is an environmental pathogen and a very common cause of mastitis in dairy cattle, with severity ranging from subclinical infections to severe systemic diseases. Antimicrobial treatment options are very limited and with negative implications on human health [9].
Klebsiella spp.
Klebsiella spp. is a group of environmental pathogens that are significant causes of bovine mastitis, with rising incidence rates in recent years. Klebsiella species are known to stay dormant in the udders and spread through cattle quickly. Infected cattle often die within days, and evidence suggests increased antibiotic resistance [10].
Lactococcus lactis
Lactococcus lactis is a Gram-positive bacteria. It was not identified as a mastitis pathogen until the start of 2007 when five New York state dairy herds were infected. It is often hard to identify in laboratories, and as a result is often misidentified as Streptococcus or Enterococcus. The treatment of these organisms is difficult because they have the ability to transfer genetic material of resistance to commonly used antibiotics. These bacteria can be spread from cow to cow through milking, but most often, it is spread environmentally, such as through bedding [11].
Pseudomonas spp
Pseudomonas spp. is a genus of bacteria that are mastitis-causing pathogens. Its infection rate in cows is around 1-3%. Using water supplies of all kinds, such as parlor water hoses, or using contaminated teat dips and contaminated infusion equipment for cows are all sources of Pseudomonas spp. infections. This genus of bacteria often attacks weak or injured tissues in the teats or mammary glands, and it can cause non-clinical cases of bovine mastitis, but exposure to large numbers of it can lead to an outbreak of clinical cases [12].
Streptococcus agalactiae
Streptococcus agalactiae is a Gram-positive bacteria that infects the bovine mammary gland. Presence of S. agalactiae is associated with increased somatic cell count and decreased quality of milk. It is present in 11% to 47% of cow herds [13].
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus, a Gram-positive coccal bacteria, and is one of the most devastating mastitis causing pathogens. This is mainly because of its ability to form biofilm. As a result, S. aureus is very difficult to treat with antibiotics as drugs are often rendered ineffective due to transport mechanisms, even if effective at killing the cells. Thus, it is one of the worst pathogens for dairy farmers [14].
Streptococcus uberis
Streptococcus uberis is Gram-positive and is the most common Streptococcus species that causes bovine mastitis. S. uberis are commonly found in manure, bedding, and other organic matter. Therefore, it often spreads to uninfected cows through environmental contact. S. uberis can also spread from cow to cow during milking [15].
