Integrated Practices
Introduction
Feeding all population and doing it sustainably, is a
major global issue. Biotechnology provides us with
promising strategies to solve those challenges.
However, agricultural necessities to efficiently manage
crops industry, change under different geographical,
social and other context-depending conditions. From a
social perspective, living in a globalised world
implies that one way or another, we are all connected.
It is our responsibility to positively use those
connexions.
In HYPE-it, we think that having solutions to problems
affecting worldwide makes it mandatory to let these
solutions arrive wherever they are asked. This is the
reason why our aim is to improve accessibility to
CRISPR/Cas9, delegating the improvement of crops to
local institutions which are aware of their
context-dependent circumstances and necessities.
Why do we study the impact assessments of our
project on society?
Impact assessment is a process and analysis that makes
possible to know the positive and negative consequences
of a proposed project on society, economy and
environment. The aim is to predict the impacts at an
early stage in project design, allowing to reduce the
found adverse impacts, shape the project to suit local
environment, society and economy and take into account
the opinions and preferences of relevant
stakeholders.
HYPE-IT was created in order to overcome some problems
that significantly make difficult the local
accessibility of precision genetic engineering
techniques, particularly CRISPR/Cas9. For us, there is
a direct connection between society problems and
project goals. We not only decided to choose this
project to solve a real problem in society but we also
made an impact assessment to fully understand the
problems. This allows us to follow a strategy that will
make our project to benefit society, economy and
environment to the greatest extent.
Types of Impact assessment.
Nutritional Impact Assessment.
According to our purpose, it was mandatory to study the
influence that a project has in a healthy and correct
nutrition. Improvements should be translated in better
data regarding child development, aging and incidence
rates of diseases directly related to proper nutrition.
Nevertheless, diet issues differ relying on the country
or even between regions. This is the reason why it is
important to identify nutritional necessities before
analyzing the impact, as there is not a concrete global
solution for all contexts.
Environmental Impact Assessment.
Resources required and environmental consequences of a
project are technical issues which determine its
success. The goal is using natural resources in a safe
and optimum manner, without compromising autochthonous
flora, fauna and health of population. The
identification, prediction and evaluation of
environmental consequences linked to a project, must
conceal environmental expertise, project stakeholders
and other representative affected nucleus. Thus,
analyzing the sustainability and acceptation of proper
practices will condition the project viability, as both
characteristics will delimit tasks execution.
Socioeconomic Impact Assessment.
Activities performed because of a project, are expected
to affect the economic and social context wherever they
are located. The scale at which the economic study is
carried through, can be from families to small and
middle enterprises, or even to the national stock
market. Microeconomy will play a role in the
macroeconomics evolution, and vice versa, making it
necessary to analyze both dimensions.
Three indicators widely used to evaluate this impact
are:
- Direct impact. It corresponds to the production (gross added product) and employment generated in those fields which are direct beneficiaries of the project.
- Indirect impact. It involves providers of sectors who are direct beneficiaries of the project.
- Induced impact. It is related to changes affecting the society as a collective, due to the new services and products offered.
- Economic context affects health, education and expansion expectations of a society. The study of shifts induced in social trends, can help to reinforce or redesign the strategy and mission of a project, trying to contribute to individual and collective development.
Scenarios
Recovering crops
Powdery mildew (PM) is a fungal disease caused by a
species of fungi in the order Erysiphales, that affects
many crops such as cucumber, melon, apple, tomato or
cereals. In Europe it is particularly problematic in
grapevine, where the parasite covers the leafs and stem
of the plant, resulting in damage of the plant and
consequently a lower quality of the grape. It becomes
acid and contains less anthocyanins and
sugar.
In France, Spain, Italy and Germany, between 1992 and
2003, 73% of the fungicides were used only for
grapevine protection (1). These fungicides for treating
powdery mildew are sulfur-based and can damage the
environment. Genetically resistant varieties can be the
solution for this problem. These varieties exist but
are not accepted by consumers and producers, as the
grape has a lower quality and are not the traditional
varieties of the region. It has been found that
resistance to PM can be achieved by knocking out genes
residing in the loci MLO (Mildew Locus O) (2). Using
the HYPE-IT technology, it is possible to easily knock
out several genes in a grapevine variety which is
affected by powdery mildew, without changing the
characteristic of the variety.
Nutritional impact:
Grapes and wine have a high content in polyphenols
-including anthocyanins-, which have antioxidant
properties. These compounds have positive effects in
human health in the prevention of diseases as cancer,
diabetes and atherosclerosis (3). Grapevines resistant
to mildew would avoid losses of this highly valuable
product, as well as preventing reduction of the
anthocyanin content of the grape. This might reduce the
price of grapes and wine, making more accessible for
the consumers these healthy products.
Environmental impact:
In 2003, around 60000 tons of sulfur-based fungicides
were used, and most of it is applied on vineyards (1).
Currently, powdery mildew is controlled using mainly
these type of fungicide, which is dispersed into the
environment. The fungicide used in vineyards can enter
the soil surface and persist for a period of type,
damaging the soil and the organisms living in it. It
can also migrate due to leaching to groundwater our
nearby waterways, contaminating water and being
detrimental to aquatic life ( 4). If PM resistant
varieties of grape are created, it will not be
necessary the use of tons of fungicides that can damage
the environment and the ecosystem. Other advantage of
the use of HYPE-IT for grapevine improvement is the
possibility to conserve biodiversity. It is not
necessary for the farmer to change his variety to
obtain resistance to PM, as he can improve his own
local variety.
Socio-economic impact:
Powdery mildew affecting grapevines can cost annually
up to 369$/acre, accounting for loses and expenses in
fungicides and its application over the crops. PM can
imply around 20% of total grapevine production expenses
(5). By using PM resistant varieties, these costs can
be reduced, which means lower expenses for the farmer
and consequently, cheaper products for the consumer. In
2013, 14 million tons of wine were produced in the
European Union, and it is the 3rd most produced
processed crop. The same year, it exported 6 million
tons (6). These indicators serve to illustrate the
economic relevance of grapevine crops and the benefits
that would bring resistance to one of its most
prevalent diseases, powdery mildew.
Nutritional qualities improvements
Nowadays bad proteo-energetic nutrition is a huge
concern in plethora of countries. The consumable items
do not provide enough energetic and nutritional values
required for a proper development. The consequences
also affect the infants causing growth deceleration,
energy diminution for activities, more difficulties for
learning and even a lower resistance against
infections. With HYPE-IT improved crops could provide a
better hedge against the previous odds named. Food
whose assimilation and processing in the organism will
be the best possible, maximizing their nutritive
properties and contributing to the improvement of life
quality of the people.
As an example for a scenario where crop nutritional
improvement is needed, we imagine a farmer from South
America, for example Brazil. He wants to grow his own
tomato variety (Solanum lycopersicum) but with an
increased concentration of b-carotene and lycopene. The
amount of cases of deficit in the intake of these two
compounds is high in these regions.
The carotenoid biosynthesis pathway branches after the
formation of lycopene. One important branch forms
carotenoids such as b-carotene or violaxanthin. By
reducing the expression of lycopene e-cyclase (e-CYC),
carotenoid synthesis is up-regulated in seeds. The
higher total carotenoid content resulting from
reduction of this protein expression suggests that this
gene is a rate-limiting step in the carotenoid
biosynthesis pathway. (7)Employing the user-friendly
strategy of HYPE-IT this gene can be silenced by
knocking it out in order to obtain the desired
phenotype.
Nutritional impact:
Carotenoids are essential for the organism as they are
antioxidants that contribute to lower the risk of
developing cardiovascular illnesses or some types of
cancer. Additionally, b-carotenes are precursors of
vitamin A, needed for a correct development of the
organism. Vitamin A deficiency represents an important
problem. It is calculated that 251 million children
less than 5 years old have vitamin A deficit. In fact,
an estimated 250 000 to 500 000 vitamin A-deficient
children become blind every year, half of them dying
within 12 months of losing their sight. (8) Moreover,
between 1 and 2.5 million of deaths are related to
enteric and respiratory diseases caused by this
deficiency every year (9)(10)
Environmental impact:
Improving quality of the tomatoes will require a higher
demand, and consequently, the production. As a
consequence of the overexploitation of the terrain, the
farmer will need to increase the expenses in water,
fertilizer, pesticides and other investments. The
consumption of these natural resources causes
environmental problems that need to be taken into
consideration. Furthermore, carbon emissions due to
fuel and energy expenses will be increased.
Socio-economic impact:
A better tomato nutritional value will have a higher
demand in the global market because the farmer will
increase his yield, rising his income and possibly,
creating new job positions. In a competitive market
where fresh and healthy products are highly reckoned
these tomatoes could make the difference and becomes an
advantage for the seller and the consumer. Besides, the
accessibility for this technology allows an increased
food quality without being a big issue for the familiar
economy.
Increasing productivity
In 2011, the world’s population reached seven billion
people. By 2050, it will surpass nine billion, meaning
that it will be necessary to produce 70% more food (
11). One of the biggest problems regarding this issue
is the low productivity of some crops. Crops that
suffer from this problem need more resources, higher
land extension and are prone to be more expensive,
compared to High Yielding Varieties of the same
crop.
High Yielding Varieties of maize, rice and wheat were
developed in the 1960’s (12). These varieties had the
common characteristic of being semi-dwarf. This meant
that photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced,
and the assimilates are redirected to grain production,
increasing the yield of the crop. Later studies found
that semi-dwarf varieties had a mutation in the pathway
of gibberellin synthesis, making the plant shorter. In
particular, semi-dwarf rice has a mutation in
gibberellin-20-oxidase gene (Ga20ox) (13). With
HYPE-IT, any rice variety which does not have the
semi-dwarf phenotype can be edited to obtain the same
crop with higher productivity.
This is the case of the well-known Bomba rice variety
from Valencia, Spain. It is commonly used for paella,
and its organoleptic properties make it very valuable
for the consumers. However, this rice is expensive and
needs large land extensions due to its low yielding.
Bomba rice has a high stem, it lacks the semi-dwarf
characteristic. Using HYPE-IT, the Ga20ox gene of this
variety could be edited, obtaining a semi-dwarf rice
that would maintain the same organoleptic properties
with a higher production.
Nutritional impact:
Rice provides 20% of the world’s dietary energy supply
(14). It contains vitamins, minerals and a high
carbohydrate content. Bomba rice is more appreciated
due to its organoleptic properties acquired during
cooking. There are many varieties of semi-dwarf rice
crops which are cultivated around the world. Hence,
this particular variety is not a necessity from the
nutritional point of view.
Environmental impact:
Higher Yielding Varieties have the advantage of
producing higher amount of grain in the same land
extension. The outcome is that less land extension is
needed to feed the same amount of population. If higher
yielding biotech crops had not been available from 1996
to 2011 thanks to the Green Revolution, an additional
108.7 million hectares of farmland would have been
needed to maintain global production levels (15). Land
extension is a very valuable resource for the
environment. On the other hand, these varieties need
more chemical fertilizers, that can damage the soil. As
they are more efficient, up to three rounds of
cultivation and harvest can be made, deteriorating
micronutrient content of the soil.
Socio-economic impact:
Bomba rice is very popular in Spain for its use in the
famous dish paella. Nowadays, this variety is expensive
compared to others, but it is still considered the rice
that should be used to properly cook paella. The
increase of productivity while using less land and
water can lower its price and spread its use, allowing
more population to enjoy its organoleptic properties.
This turns out to be a benefit for the farmer and for
the consumer, who can find a quality product at a lower
price. Additionally, a higher production makes it
possible to export traditional and local Valencia rice
around the world, extending a cultural dish. As a
negative consequence, it is possible that less
employees are needed for the cultivation of a crop that
consumes less land extension. This can be counteracted
by the jobs that can be created as a result of the
increasing production.
Organoleptic Properties Improvement
Organoleptic properties constitute the overall
appearance of a product: smell, touch, flavor...
Undoubtedly, a better appearance means higher consumer
acceptance and a significant reduction of food loss and
waste due to slower ripening, for example (16). A 2015
report published by FAO estimated that a 40-50% of
global fruit is yearly wasted or lost (17).
The following scenario is set in China, the major world
fuzzy kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa) producer, with
1.765.847 tons produced in 2013 ( 18). The gene
encoding ACS3 is related to the harvesting of several
fruits, including kiwis. Using HYPE-IT, they could
easily find this information in our software and
knockout the gene, slowing kiwi ripening.
Nutritional impact:
Kiwi organoleptic properties are definitely worth to be
improved. It is a well-known source of dietary fiber,
vitamin E, K, C and carotenoids. Those are needed
nutrients in some isolated places where foreign fruits
cannot arrive because of their early harvesting during
their transport. Improving their organoleptic
properties could let their preservation until they
reached those destinations. Kiwi seed oil is rich in
α-linolenic and Ω-3 fatty acids. These unsaturated
acids are helpful in the prevention of cardiovascular
diseases, which have significantly increased in China
during the last half century. The positive impact of
those nutrients could be higher by the improvement of
kiwi organoleptic properties, as it may incentivize its
intake.
Environmental impact:
In terms of production, a slower fruit ripening is a
logistic priority. Concretely in China, the loss rate
of fruit is a 20% and barriers imposed to outer food,
compromising the fresh fruit transport. Although there
may be strict control policy for an optimum layout,
there is always a stock being produced. Fruit storage
means additional expenses in the control of conditions
that affect organoleptic properties, and in 2007,
Chinese storage facilities only could accommodate the
15% of production (19)(20). This makes especially
difficult the maintenance of small and middle fruit
enterprises, which cannot cope a scale in the
production with the lack of conservation
technology.
Storage costs could be much minor in case of modified
kiwis with slower ripening, reducing the risk of losing
product, augmenting the stock quality and the
competitiveness of final product prices. From the
consumer perspective, better organoleptic properties
enrich the gastronomic experience, facilitating the
intake of positive nutrients mentioned above.
Socio-economic impact:
Closely related with logistic in production, the use of
natural resources to reach the expected demand could
benefit as well by slowing the harvest losses. A stock
with good and lasting quality would lead to a decrease
of the fruit amount to be newly produced. Reducing the
water and soil used to grow fruit is key for
environmentaly friendly strategies. In China, the
availability of arable land is also a compromising fact
due to the high urbanization and population increase.
By slower fruit ripening, resources would be exploited
in a more sustainable way, as a higher rate of the
product could finally reach the market.
Nutrition is a big part of our life, the gear that
allows us to achieve our personal goals every day. If
we improve the characteristics of the food that
provides that energy, we will increase our life
quality.
�
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