In planetary exploration, monitoring temperature changes in the atmosphere is important for predicting weather patterns and atmospheric stability. At different heights above the planet’s surface, the temperature can vary drastically. The way that the temperature changes from hotter to cooler than back to hotter temperatures can be used to predict how weather and wind patterns will move across that region. This is helpful to know in planetary exploration because it can help predict the weather that various rovers or exploration outposts would have to deal with without relying on expensive satellite equipment. Additionally, the vertical temperature profile of a certain region of a planet’s atmosphere can be used to predict how easily a payload will fall through the atmosphere and land on the planet’s surface. [1]
Team:Stanford-Brown/SB16 BioSensor Chromoproteins
Chromoproteins team member Taylor introduces the chromoproteins subproject
Why Study Temperature?
On Earth, vertical temperature profiles can be obtained using electronic temperature sensors mounted on weather balloons. These balloons go up to different heights in the atmosphere and relay real-time measurements of the atmospheric temperatures. While these electronics are easy to obtain and replace if they are broken on Earth, in the context of planetary exploration, they are irreplaceable and unreliable because it would take years to send replacements if they break and are impossible to fix without also sending replacement parts along the mission. Thus, a biological temperature sensor was developed in order to address these concerns. This biological temperature sensor can be expressed in a small culture of E.coli and be easily replaced simply by maintaining a culture of that particular bacteria.
In order to build a biological temperature sensor, we used chromogenic proteins from the DNA2.0 paintbox and from the iGEM registry. Chromogenic proteins or chromoproteins are colored proteins that have been extracted from a variety of organisms such as the sea anemone, Actinia equine [2] or have been synthetically produced (as was the case for the chromoproteins from DNA2.0). Like all proteins, chromogenic proteins are sensitive to heat; however, their sensitivity to heat is coupled with a visible color loss or change. Our research has shown that different chromoproteins respond to different temperatures by either losing their color or changing to a different color. These differential responses to temperature allowed us to build a biological temperature sensor.
The basic structure of a chromogenic protein consists of a large beta barrel and a chromophore which is supported by the beta barrel. The chromophore interacts with light and gives the protein its distinctive color. Additionally, the shape of the beta barrel is supported by water molecules that interact with the side chains of the amino acids that the beta barrel comprises of. These water molecules are essential for the chromogenic protein to maintain its structure. In response to heat, our hypothesis is that these water molecules are released from the beta barrel, thus allowing the barrel to collapse and the chromophore to no longer be supported enough to produce color [3]. Because planetary exploration requires a sensor that can function in a variety of environments, we tested our chromogenic proteins in a sealed environment and in an open air environment. The following sections details those experiments.
In order to build a biological temperature sensor, we used chromogenic proteins from the DNA2.0 paintbox and from the iGEM registry. Chromogenic proteins or chromoproteins are colored proteins that have been extracted from a variety of organisms such as the sea anemone, Actinia equine [2] or have been synthetically produced (as was the case for the chromoproteins from DNA2.0). Like all proteins, chromogenic proteins are sensitive to heat; however, their sensitivity to heat is coupled with a visible color loss or change. Our research has shown that different chromoproteins respond to different temperatures by either losing their color or changing to a different color. These differential responses to temperature allowed us to build a biological temperature sensor.
The basic structure of a chromogenic protein consists of a large beta barrel and a chromophore which is supported by the beta barrel. The chromophore interacts with light and gives the protein its distinctive color. Additionally, the shape of the beta barrel is supported by water molecules that interact with the side chains of the amino acids that the beta barrel comprises of. These water molecules are essential for the chromogenic protein to maintain its structure. In response to heat, our hypothesis is that these water molecules are released from the beta barrel, thus allowing the barrel to collapse and the chromophore to no longer be supported enough to produce color [3]. Because planetary exploration requires a sensor that can function in a variety of environments, we tested our chromogenic proteins in a sealed environment and in an open air environment. The following sections details those experiments.
Closed System
To test our chromoproteins in a closed system that did not allow them to interact with anything in the air, we spun down 5 mL cultures of each of our chromoproteins and added 30 uL of the pellet cells to a PCR tube along with 1 uL of .165 M EDTA. We then heated these PCR tubes for 5 min at a starting temperature of 40 °C, removed them from the thermal cycler, took a picture, then returned them to the thermal cycler for 5 more minutes at a temperature that was 5 °C higher than the previous. We repeated this process until we reached 100 °C. As can be seen from the images below, groups of chromoproteins lose their color at specific temperatures. Additionally, Cupid Pink and Donner Magenta change from pink to purple at 70 °C and 80 °C respectively. (INSERT PICTURE 1: I don’t have this one, it’s the slides from the presentation that shows the colors being lost. It should be the original one that was the whole grid of all of the chromoproteins)
Interestingly, we also observed that if there were certain cultures that were not showing color on a particular day, the heat treatments as described above were able to cause the color we would have initially expected to appear. (Insert Picture (CP1) (make sure it’s tilted so that there are two rows of PCR tubes running horizontally), Caption: As can be seen above, the bottom row of five PCR tubes containing 30 uL of the cell pellet does not show any color. The chromoproteins in the bottom row are from DNA2.0: Virginia Violet (left), Maccabee Purple, Seraphina Pink, Tinsel Purple, and Donner Magenta.) (Insert Picture (CP2), Caption: After these previously colorless cell pellets have been treated at 55 °C for 30 min, 60 °C for 30 minutes, and 60 °C for 30 min, color can be observed. This color then proceeds to disappear again as the temperature continues to increase (insert picture (CP3)). This time, the color does not return after heat treatments.
Open System
To delve further into the question of what exactly is happening when these chromoproteins are heated, we used Gibson Assembly to clone the gene coding for the iGEM biobrick AE Blue and the 12 DNA2.0 chromoproteins into pSB1C3. We also added a FLAG, lumio and 6x histidine tag in order be able to extract the expressed protein using nickel column purification. The lumio tag is a specific six amino acid sequence that binds to the Lumio Green Detection ReagentTM [4] which allows the fusion of the lumio tag and the chromoprotein to be detected on an SDS-Page Gel without having to run a staining protocol. The FLAG tag allows for anything after its sequence to be cleaved off of the protein when the extracted protein is incubated with enterokinase [5]. This was done in case the lumio or histidine tag interfered with the chromoprotein structure.
Additionally, a cellulose binding domain was added to each of the chromoproteins. This cellulose binding domain was from the BioBrick BBa_K1321366 which also has a GFP fused to it. For the purposes of our experiments, we isolated the cellulose binding domain from this part using PCR. The cellulose binding domain sequence was isolated from Cellulomonas fimi and has been shown to bind irreversibly to cellulose (cite). In order to ensure that the addition of this larger protein did not interfere with the structure of the chromoproteins, we extracted both the chromoprotein without the cellulose binding domain and with the domain and ran the same heat testing experiments. (INSERT PICTURE CP4: THIS IS THE GIBSON ASSEMBLY DIAGRAM)
The extracted protein was concentrated using microfiltration tubes then allowed to dry on cellulose sheets which had wax wells printed on them. These cellulose sheets with the dried chromoprotein were then placed in a preheated oven and the temperature was increased at five minute intervals until a temperature change was observed.
The extracted protein was concentrated using microfiltration tubes then allowed to dry on cellulose sheets which had wax wells printed on them. These cellulose sheets with the dried chromoprotein were then placed in a preheated oven and the temperature was increased at five minute intervals until a temperature change was observed.
Prototyping a biological thermometer
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Testing the prototype
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References
1) Schlatter, Thomas W. "Atmospheric Composition and Vertical Structure." National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2009): n. pag. Web.
2) Shkrob, Maria A., Yurii G. Yanushevich, Dmitriy M. Chudakov, Nadya G. Gurskaya, Yulii A. Labas, Sergey Y. Poponov, Nikolay N. Mudrik, Sergey Lukyanov, and Konstantin A. Lukyanov. "Far-red Fluorescent Proteins Evolved from a Blue Chromoprotein from Actinia Equina." Biochem. J. Biochemical Journal 392.3 (2005): 649-54. Web.
3) Langan, P.s., D.w. Close, L. Coates, R.c. Rocha, K. Ghosh, C. Kiss, G. Waldo, J. Freyer, A. Kovalevsky, and A.r.m. Bradbury. "Corrigendum to “Evolution and Characterization of a New Reversibly Photoswitching Chromogenic Protein, Dathail” [J. Mol. Biol., 428, (2016), 1776–89]." Journal of Molecular Biology 428.20 (2016): 4244. Web.
4) "Lumio Green Detection Kit - Thermo Fisher Scientific."; N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2016. 5) "FLAG Tag Peptide|Versatile Fusion Tag|CAS# 98849-88-8." FLAG Tag Peptide|Versatile Fusion Tag|CAS# 98849-88-8. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Oct. 2016.
1) Schlatter, Thomas W. "Atmospheric Composition and Vertical Structure." National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2009): n. pag. Web.
2) Shkrob, Maria A., Yurii G. Yanushevich, Dmitriy M. Chudakov, Nadya G. Gurskaya, Yulii A. Labas, Sergey Y. Poponov, Nikolay N. Mudrik, Sergey Lukyanov, and Konstantin A. Lukyanov. "Far-red Fluorescent Proteins Evolved from a Blue Chromoprotein from Actinia Equina." Biochem. J. Biochemical Journal 392.3 (2005): 649-54. Web.
3) Langan, P.s., D.w. Close, L. Coates, R.c. Rocha, K. Ghosh, C. Kiss, G. Waldo, J. Freyer, A. Kovalevsky, and A.r.m. Bradbury. "Corrigendum to “Evolution and Characterization of a New Reversibly Photoswitching Chromogenic Protein, Dathail” [J. Mol. Biol., 428, (2016), 1776–89]." Journal of Molecular Biology 428.20 (2016): 4244. Web.
4) "Lumio Green Detection Kit - Thermo Fisher Scientific."; N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2016. 5) "FLAG Tag Peptide|Versatile Fusion Tag|CAS# 98849-88-8." FLAG Tag Peptide|Versatile Fusion Tag|CAS# 98849-88-8. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Oct. 2016.
